NATIVE AMERICAN EXPERIENCE

The following information is included:

1. Definition of Native-American as defined by DoD Dir 1350.2.

2. Description of the origins of Native-Americans.

3. Explanation of the beliefs and values of Native-Americans.

4. Description of the population trends of Native-Americans.

5. Explanation of concepts of treaties.

6. Description of the legal status of Native-Americans

7. Description of historical events which impacted the Native-Americans and their population.

8. Description of the cultural values, attitudes and behaviors, and social problems.

9. Description of the Native-Americans contributions.

Part I. Definition and origins of Native Americans

Definition.  As described in DoD Directive 1350.2 a Native-American or Alaskan Native is a person having origins in the original peoples of North America, and who maintains cultural identification through tribal affiliation or community recognition.

There is no one contemporary majority definition that establishes a person’s identity as a Native-American.  The Bureau of Census states that “anybody who claims to be a Native-American” is a Native-American.  The Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), which is the organization responsible for monitoring Indian affairs and issues, general definition to be a Native-American, you must:

1. Be 1/4-1/2 Native-American blood at a minimum.

2. Live on or near trust lands/reservations.

3. Be on a tribal roll recognized by the federal government.

4. Trace ancestry back three generations.

5. Be approved by BIA officials.

To receive BIA services they must meet all of these criteria.  It puts the Native-Americans in an awkward situation since they are being encouraged to move off the reservations and assimilate with mainstream society. On the other hand, if they don’t live on a reservation and meet all of these criteria they can not receive BIA services.

In 1984, one-third of all Native-Americans lived on a reservation and the other two thirds in urban areas with the largest population in the state of California.  Individual tribes have their own ways of establishing a person’s identity.  In some tribes if a non-Native-American marries a Native-American then that non-Native-American is recognized as a Native-American.

There are 500 federally recognized tribes and fit no single description, since they are far too individualistic.  There are 250 different Indian languages.  However, most can communicate with different tribes through sign language, but not verbally.  There are differences in social structure and political structures amongst the various tribes.  Furthermore, there are light skinned, blonde hair, green-eyed Native-Americans to extremely dark colored skin.  So Native-Americans do not all look alike as many films and pictures have portrayed.

Some examples of Native-American stereotypes portrayed in the media were the Cavalry always wins and the Native-Americans were always on the warpath scalping soldiers.  However, the Europeans, not the Native-Americans introduced scalping to America.  It was easy for the media and historians to distort history and Native-Americans, because it was difficult for the Native-Americans to defend themselves, since until recently there was no written language.  Native-American passed on history through the word of mouth from one generation to the next.  Many tribes have become extinct and their history was not passed on.  As a result of the stereotypes and omissions in history or distortions of history,  the Native-Americans have taken on a generally negative identity.

Origins of Native-Americans.  Speculation about the origins of man in the New World was as fanciful as the tribal myths and legends. The early writers were constrained by theological concepts which traced man’s ancestry to Adam and Eve, through Noah and his offspring.  The search for New World origins accordingly was at first confined to biblical interpretation, with embellishments from classical mythology.  A tale attributed to Aristotle told of certain Phoenician sailors who sailed westward and disappeared into the Atlantic.

The tale was resurrected after Columbus’ voyage with the explanation that he had discovered the descendants of lost mariners.  In another account, Plato’s fabled continent of Atlantis provided the land bridge over which people crossed to the Americas where they were isolated when Atlantis was destroyed by earthquake.

A favorite theme, one which persisted into the nineteenth century, identified the Native-Americans with the Lost Tribes of Israel, based on a supposed similarity between Hebrew and Aztec words and on certain customs and traditions said to be common to Jews and New World tribal people.

Stories about the creation and origins of man are common to all people.  The Native-Americans are no different.  Every tribe, or nation, has a creation myth that has been passed down through the generations.

Dr. Alvin M. Josephy, noted historian and author of the book, Two Nations, cited several examples of origin myths.  He states: “Among the Nez Perce and other Native-American people of the mountainous Northwest, generations of grandparents told children stories of a time when the world was inhabited only by animals, all of whom spoke like humans and had human-like characteristics.  Living by one of the waterways was a fierce monster who kept all the animals in fear by devouring them.  Finally, the bold and courageous Coyote, the tribe’s cultural hero, jumped down the monster’s throat and killed him by sawing up his heart with flint.  When the monster was dead, Coyote cut his body into small pieces, creating from each part a different tribe.  In the desert Southwest, Hopi, Zuni, and Pueblo descendants of the Anasazis tell of the emergence of their people through a hole, known as sipapu, from an underground lake.  Others related in great detail the climb of their ancestors toward perfection through three underworlds and their final emergence through sipapu into the present or fourth world.”

Another creation story which is told by the tribes of the northwest coast tells of a lonely god who wanted companionship:  “Raven was lonely.  One day he paced back and forth on the sandy beach quite forlorn.  Except for the trees, the moon, the sun, water and a few animals, the world was so empty.  His heart wished for the company of other creatures.  Suddenly a large clam pushed through the sand making an eerie bubbling sound.  Raven watched and listened intently as the clam slowly opened up.  He was surprised and happy to see tiny people emerging from the shell.  All were talking, smiling, and shaking the sand off their tiny bodies.  Men, women, and children spread around the island.  Raven was pleased and proud with his work.  He sang a beautiful song of great joy and greeting.  He brought the first people to the world.”

Most of the tribal legends tell of migrations to the sites that became their homes in the world.  It is this migration theme which formed the basis for the scientific explanation for the western hemisphere.  The first person to propose a theory that was not shrouded in fantasy, but represented an attempt to logically and factually explain the presence of New World people, was not even a member of the scientific community.  In fact, he was from a religious order.  De Acosta’s theory was a revolutionary leap in thinking toward the origins of New World people.  However, it would be almost 400 hundred years before scientific evidence would lend support to what a Jesuit missionary had imagined.

Jose De Acosta, who in 1590 published the first of several volumes in which he argued that man and animals had crossed to the New World over a land bridge, the location of which was either in the South Seas, across from the Strait of Magellan, or off the northwest coast of North America.  De Acosta noted that such a journey would require “only short stretches of navigation” -- an extraordinary premise, given that Europeans would not “discover” the Bering Strait for another 136 years.

Today, the generally accepted scientific view is that the roots of Native-Americans are located somewhere in Asia.  They believe the migration occurred somewhere between 10 and 40 thousand years ago years as the Earth progressed through various periods of the last ice age in which the development of unimaginable Pleistocene glaciers caused the world’s oceans to drop over 300 feet.  It was this drop in the level of the world’s oceans which scientist believe allowed the Bering Land Bridge, which is now known as Alaska to appear.  This passage between the two continents, coupled with temperate weather periods which caused the sea to slowly rise while melting the ice that had previously blocked the land routes, provided an avenue for the migrating people, animals, and plant life to reach the New World.  However, this is only theory, since Native-Americans pass their history through word of mouth and most of the tribes are extinct.

Archaeologists have confirmed the presence of people living in all parts of North and South America at least 12,000 years ago--longer than Egypt, Phoenicia, China , Israel, or any other nation identified in history.  Eventually, the ice age came to an end and the glaciers began to recede, restoring the oceans to previous levels and once again covering the Bering Land Bridge.  Once, in what would one day be called North America, these nomadic natives began to flourish, expand, and move south through the valleys and plains, following the animals they hunted for food and other necessities.  Eventually these small bands of wanderers would inhabit a quarter of the world’s land surface.  They would also develop sophisticated and diverse cultures that would extend from sea to sea and last for over a thousand generations.

It is important to consider and understand how Native-Americans view this scientific origin theory as it conflicts with many of the tribal origin legends and stories.  Vine Deloria, Jr., of the Standing Rock Sioux offers us the opportunity to view a different perspective. The Bering Strait theory is tenaciously held by white scholars against the varied migration traditions of the natives and is an example of the triumph of doctrine over facts.  Excavating ancient fireplaces and campsites may be exciting, but there are no well-worn paths which clearly show migratory patterns from Asia to North America, and if there were such paths, there would be no indication anywhere which way the footprints were heading.  We can be certain of only one thing:  the Bering Strait theory is preferred by whites and consequently becomes accepted as scientific fact.  If the universities were controlled by the Native-Americans, we would have an entirely different explanation of the peopling of the New World and it would be just as respectable for the scholarly establishment to support it.  The theory does illustrate a constant theme that a good many scientific and/or scholarly beliefs about Native-Americans originated as religious doctrines.  As religion lost its influence as an opinion maker, the idea was picked up by some secular scholars, transformed into scientific theory, and published as orthodox science.

The origins of the Native-Americans are geographically disburse.  The following are some of the cultural area concepts:

• Northeastern.  Mostly fishers and hunters.

• Southeastern.  A lot were farmers and hunters.

• Plains.  Farmers, fishers, and hunters.

The Native-Americans hunted the buffalo for food.  However, the settlers hunted them for sport.  Traditional Native-Americans do not believe of killing animals for the sake of killing.  When the Native-Americans killed a buffalo, every part of that buffalo was used.  Buffalo were killed for food, shelter, and clothing.  If a Native-American had enough food for the family then they would give part of the buffalo to other families in need of food.  Native-Americans did not kill the buffalo for the sake of sport.

• Southwest.  Great Basin, Plateau.  Farmers and sheep herders.

• California Coast.  Primarily seed gatherers ,e.g., berries, nuts and fishers.

When the Europeans saw the Native-Americans gathering the berries and nuts they assumed they were gathering seeds, thus they were called “seed gatherers.”

• Northwest Coast.  Primarily fishers.

• Subarctic.  Fishers, hunters.

When Columbus arrived it is estimated there was between one and ten million Native-Americans in America.  Native-American scholars claim there were more than ten million.

As the Europeans settled in America, fur trading progressed into the continent’s heartland involving more Native-American nations and in 1670, the British established the Hudson’s Bay Company  to compete with the French monopoly which existed in Canada. The tribes played the French and British against one another to get the highest prices for their furs.  The Native-Americans received payment in guns, powder, balls, hatchets, blankets, cloth, kettles, knives, mirrors, awls, beads, paints, combs, and other European manufactured goods, and this exchange caused a great change in their material culture.

Many Native-American nations generally found it more lucrative to trade with the white men than to pursue old economic activities.  Some of the agricultural nations stopped planting and let their fields lie fallow and overrun with weeds, while hunting societies lost the rhythm of their lives.  Traditional trade networks and practices were disrupted, jealousies and feuds were aroused, and the ability of tribes to control the behavior of their members was undermined by the diverting presence of the Europeans.

The village, clan, and family cohesion and discipline broke apart as individuals, eager for economic gain and prestige, put personal goals ahead of the values and well being of the group.  At the same time, bands and nations that once traded for mutual benefit were forced into cutthroat competition.  Ancient tribal and personal spiritual values and sacred relationships with the land and animals also changed or were abandoned.

The balance which had existed for thousands of years had been destroyed.  The excess hunting caused an exhaustion of wildlife, which at times resulted in starvation for the Native-Americans.  Alcoholism became widespread as traders supplied large quantities of liquor to the braves, making it easier to swindle them out of their furs.

Authority and traditions of the tribe, which had previously been maintained in the past by elders and clan relatives, spiritual leaders, or, sometimes, by public ridicule and shame, were no longer effective.  The efficient and peaceful system of trade and commerce which had existed for thousands of years among the Native-American nations had been completely destroyed by the mid-eighteenth century.  It was replaced by a competitive European system which stripped away Native-American culture and traditions leaving behind uprooted and stressed people who turned to violence in an attempt to survive.

As the fur trade moved west it left behind an even worse legacy.  Where there once ws a land full of life, inhabited by proud, unbridled, and honorable people, there now remained only barren lands inhabited by a people who were no longer self-sufficient and without hope.  Without a doubt, the uncontrolled expansion of the fur trade and the eventual disregard for established practices directly contributed to the decline of many North American Native-American nations.  By 1850, the population decreased to an estimated 250,000.  The three primary causes of the decline:

• Foreign diseases.  The Native-American immune systems could not protect them from the foreign diseases ,e.g., small pox.  Many other Native-Americans were given diseased blankets and clothing, so they would contract these diseases.

• Starvation.  A military tactic of cutting off the Native-Americans food supply was used.  Animals and other sources of food were destroyed.  Many of them were on the run so much, that when they got to an area where they could possibly get food,  they had to move on again.

• Extermination.  Many of them died from mass executions.  The history books may refer to them as “Great Indian Battles,”  the Native-American historians call them massacres.

Sand Creek massacre  was probably one of the most vicious massacres in history in terms of what happened.  There was a tribe of 200 Native-American men, women, and children.  A group of soldiers attacked them and destroyed the entire tribe and then paraded through the city of Denver with male genitals and female genitals and breasts on display.  The last Great Indian Battle in this country took place in the late 1800s at the first Wounded Knee, not to be confused with the second Wounded Knee in the 1870s.  At this point in time historians state that the Indians were tired of moving and just couldn’t win.  The Native-Americans realized that in terms of numbers, ammunition, and power they couldn’t win.  What was interesting about Wounded Knee is that it was totally unnecessary.  An old Native-American religious leader had a dream that he had saw the ghosts of thousands of Native-Americans on a march.  He took that to believe that the Native-Americans will again someday have some power and would be able to march on non-Indians and regain their country.  He took it as an inspiration and told other Native-Americans about the dream.  The word got around to other Native-Americans.  The Native-Americans started doing what is known as the “ghost dance,” which is basically a ritual or ceremonial dance tied to this dream.  The settlers thought the Native-American tribes were going to form an alliance and try to destroy the settlers.  The 300 Native-American men, women and children at Wounded Knee were attacked and all of them were killed.

• Other.  Many died because the didn’t have a will to live any longer.  Many died due to forced relocation.  Some were taken to Europe as slaves and never returned.

Current population estimates there are presently two million Native-Americans in this county and by the year 2050 there will be approximately 4.3 million comprising still under 10% of the total population.

Part II. Historical events which impacted the Native Americans and their population

For years American history books talked about the ancestors of modern day Native-Americans as if they were all one race, and often, as if they were all of one nation.  Further, they had a tendency to view them as particular to areas that are now the United States and Canada.  In reality, however, while the 1991 U.S. Bureau of Census statistics show they comprise only about 1% of our population, Native-Americans represent fifty percent of the diversity, speak 252 languages, and currently have 505 Federally recognized tribes and 365 state-recognized tribes.  Even greater diversity exists when a comparison of value orientations and cultural commitment is made.

Beliefs and values.  The Native-American culture developed a value and belief system which differed significantly from those of the Europeans in some regards and yet was very similar in others.  The Native-American world recognizes the importance of relationships that exist between all living creatures and their environment.  This belief is a central theme throughout Native-American culture.  This respect of life and land played an integral part in the development of Native-American society and is still very important today.  This idea of the “inter-relatedness of all things” is one of the foundational principles forming the essence of their world view.  The Native-Americans seek not to control the environment like European cultures, but to live in harmony with it.  More importantly, because they believe everyone and everything is related, Native-American cultures developed a deep respect for life.

Religion. A discussion of beliefs and values would not be complete without examining Native-American religious practices. It is interesting to note that unlike the Christian religion in which man’s harmonious existence with nature was destroyed due to the fall from grace in the Garden of Eden, most Native-American cultures believe that it is possible, even necessary, for man to live in harmony with nature and others.  There is a strong bond between the land and the people.  Native-American cultures developed their own concept of God and the universe.  These religious concepts are very complex and represent much more than superstitions to the Native-Americans as thought by the early Europeans.  Everything to the Native-American is religion.  It is at the core of every aspect of the traditional Native-American life.  Native-Americans view the “mother” as earth.  They think that the earth generates life, sustains life and eventually they will all return to the earth.  Europeans thought this was rather abnormal or ignorant, because the Native-Americans were willing trade land for mere trinkets.  What the settlers didn’t understand is that the Native-Americans did not place a monetary value on the land.  The Native-Americans thought “how can you own something that was here when you got here and will be here when you leave.”  They took the trinkets, because they were basically getting something for something that was not theirs anyway.

The Native-Americans view the earth as sacred and a reflection of the people.  They believe there is a “oneness” between living things in terms of human beings, how they interact and are linked to the animals, trees, plants and the rest of the universe.  The earth is viewed as the geometrical figure of a circle and is “the circle of life.”  The Native-Americans view the circle as the one thing that binds all things together.  The circle of life symbolizes a connection between all that exists and binds everything together.  It is a very important figure.  One Native-American stated “You have noticed that everything an Indian does is in a circle, and that is because the power of the world always works in circles and everything tries to be round.  This knowledge came to us from the outer world with our religion.  Everything the power of the world does is done in a circle.  The sky is round and I have heard the earth is round like a ball and so are all of the stars.  The wind in its greatest power whirls.  Birds make their nests in circles, for their is the same religion as ours.  The sun comes forth and goes down again in a circle and the moon does the same and both are round.  Even the seasons form a great circle and they’re changing and always come back again to where they were.  The life of a man is a circle.  He goes from childhood to childhood again.  And so it is in everything where power moves.”

Hence, individual life strengthens the tribe and is to be cherished, nurtured, and protected.  The Native-American philosophy towards hunting helps to further illustrate the belief in the connection of all life.  The shaman (native physician and ritualist) is often responsible for ensuring a successful hunt.  This is accomplished by visiting the cave to meet the spirit in charge of the local animal population.  Together, the shaman and animal spirit work out a redistribution of lives within the region.  A certain number of human souls are for the spirit of animals killed in the hunt.  The Native-Americans believe that since all souls are immortal, and thus available for later exchange, the reapportionment balanced out over time.  However, for the process to work, it is necessary for the hunter to treat the mortal remains of the killed animals with honor an respect.

Most Native-Americans believe in one superior being although it is given different labels.  They also believe in lesser beings.  They believe that whatever you do to the earth you do to yourself, because you are connected and inter-linked with earth.  Therefore they are very careful about what they do to people and how they treat people.  For example, they wouldn’t cut down a tree for fire wood if there was dead wood on the ground.  The circle is symbolized in many of their ceremonies and often their dwellings symbolize a circle.

Rituals are still an integral part of the Native-American lifestyle.  They still serve to unite tribal communities and educate Native-American youth on their heritage and beliefs.  These two factors have enabled the Native-American culture to survive through the millennia.  It is also apparent that religion could have offered an opportunity for the Europeans and Native-Americans to meet on common ground.  There were several commonalties that existed between Native-American and European religious practices.

First, representatives of both sets or religious, priests and shamans, pray or perform special rites to their respective gods for things their people need.  Both religions believe in divine intervention or miracles.  Secondly, Christians believe (then and now) in the possibility of miracles--a special blessing handed down by God to fulfill a special need.  Native-Americans also ask their deities for signs of approval or kindness--rain after a drought, a cure for an illness or injury, gift of food in hard times.

The primary difference stems from the source of each religion’s belief.  The Christians relying on Church doctrine based on various interpretations of the Bible made by generations of scholars, and the Native-American rooted in a profound connection with the land and all life.  However, no common ground would ever be reached and the Europeans would seek to replace the Native-American religions with Christianity just as they had attempted to do with the Moslem cultures during the crusades.

Some Native-Americans would become Christians, while others would hold fast to their traditional beliefs.  Some would die for their beliefs, while others would adopt new ones while still carrying on their traditions and practices as they had for thousands of years.

For the Native-Americans, religion and land are the cornerstone of their existence.  These two elements combine to form a delicate balance which has been the basis of the Native-American world view for thousands of years.  The arrival of the Europeans upset this balance and started a chain of events that would eventually result in the erosion, decay, and finally the ruin of many great Native-American civilizations.

With the loss of their land and persecutions of their beliefs, the Native-American way of life would be forever changed.  It is an outlook that has been ingrained into the very nature of the Native-American people.

Role of the family.  In the Native-American community families are extremely important.  The children in Native-American families are socialized somewhat different from non-Native-American children.  The family serves as an instrument of accountability and responsibility, which included the entire community.  Native-Americans have very close kinship ties even in terms of extended families.  Kinship is not limited just to the immediate family, but to the other families in the tribe as well.

The elders are the most respected in the community and viewed as being wise.  Traditional Native-Americans feel it is an honor to be in the presence of the elders and they should be talked to and learned from.  The elders teach how to act and not act, and their survival techniques.

Native-American children are more important than material possessions.  The children are the one’s who are going to carry on the tribal traditions and the family.  Physical punishment is not and is still not acceptable.  If a child can not go to a social function, then the parents will not go.  When teaching the children, respect is taught by example.  When Native-Americans make artifacts or tools, they make them with imperfections to show  that everything is not perfect and teach the children that not everything or everyone is perfect.  They teach the children that they do not have to be perfect or expect others to be perfect.

The women are very important to the tribe. They are regarded as having a special magic and holiness. The women can bear the children.  They make the toys for the children.

Though there are major differences in the values and beliefs of the American Native-Americans and Europeans, there are also similarities.  Universal qualities like generosity, kindness, honor, courage, humor, and bravery are an integral part of Native-American culture.  They recognize the importance of such traits.  Men and women not only possess these qualities but actually demonstrate them in their daily lives before being placed in a position of authority and power.

Culture Values, Attitudes and Behaviors:

1. Cooperation vs. Competition.  Excellence is related to the contribution to the group.  American culture teaches us to compete and to win.  Native-American culture encourages group involvement or group oriented goals.

2. Reticence vs. Verbalization.  In terms of socialization, Americans are taught to be verbal and to question and challenge.  Native-Americans are socialized that silence is important.  To talk loudly and point is discouraged.  It is not consider a good trait to bring attention to one self and listening is a skill that is encouraged.  Native-Americans are taught that you can learn more by listening rather than talking.  Because of this trait, many Europeans thought the Native-Americans were ignorant and did not understand or they had no feelings.

3. Group Oriented vs. Individualistic.  Emphasis is put on the tribe versus self. American culture recommends that we be individualists and to take of ourselves and our families.  Native-Americans believe in sharing.

4. Role Playing and Observation.  Listening and role playing is a key to learning.

5. Giving/Sharing Highly Valued.  Symbolizes friendship.

6. Time/Emphasis on Present.  American culture teaches us to be on time.  Native-Americans are not concerned with time.

7. Values.  American culture teaches us that education is extremely important and puts a lot of pressure on people to learn and to get good grades.  Native-Americans teach that it’s important the children learn, but it’s not something you get upset or angry with them about.  They talk to the children and suggest that they learn and the reasons why it’s important, but they don’t pressure them about it.

The government, in an attempt to assimilate the Native-Americans, determined the Native-American children needed to be educated and should go to boarding schools.  While in these boarding schools they were taught that all of the things they were taught by their tribe, their beliefs, values and attitudes about the universe were wrong.  They were taught that the way they dressed, the way they wore their hair, and the way they spoke was wrong.  Also, they were taught that the things their parents and grandparents believed in were wrong.  As a result, there was a great deal of confusion.

The children returned home and tried to figure out what was right or wrong.  The children were also being taught different ideas about religion and that they should be Christians and they should not believe in their legends and folk tales.  The children began having problems with their identity.  The children were ridiculed and made to feel uncomfortable.  These boarding schools had a devastating effect psychologically on many Native-American children.

Large numbers of Native-American children were sent to foster homes based on recommendations of social workers because their parents were determined to be unfit parents, because of their values.

Treaties.  The legal process that was used in dealing with the Native-Americans was the treaty.  However, 400 treaties were signed between the government and the Native-Americans and not one treaty was kept in total.  The main problem was the lack of comprehension by Native-Americans of the legal documents they were signing.

Legislation.  There have been many pieces of legislation passed in reference to the Native-Americans.

In 1830 the Indian Removal Act was passed.  President Andrew Jackson pushed for the Indian Removal Act.  The settlers in Georgia and Alabama felt that if the Native-Americans didn’t assimilate or yield ground then they should be moved out.  The Act forced approximately all 100,000 eastern Native-Americans to be moved to the west of the Mississippi.  The five civilized tribes (large tribes) were moved.  These included the Cherokee, Chippawa, Chickasaw, Creek, Seminoles and some of the Senecas from the north were moved to the Indian Territory which is now known as Oklahoma.  The Cherokee resisted and it took approximately six years for them to move.  The Cherokee move is the one most notable and was called “The Trail of Tears.”  Of the 16,000 Cherokees moved, 4,000 either died or were seriously injured due to starvation or exposure.

Settlers, in their quest for security continued to pressure the government to do something about the Native-Americans.  The settlers began moving westward and the wanted the Native-Americans to continue to be moved westward.  The Army rid the country of numerous Native-Americans by forcing them to move, exposing them to disease, and putting them in isolated areas where they could not survive.

In 1887, the Dawes Allotment Act was passed.  This was an attempt to get the Native-Americans to assimilate.  The Act called for breaking up the reservations into allotments or parcels of land and make the Native-Americans farmers.  It was thought if the Native-Americans were given their individual piece of land and farm, they would then be more like society and assimilate.  The reservations were divided up into 40-60 acre lots per family, based on the size of the family.  The first problem with this Act was the assumption the Native-Americans wanted to be farmers and wanted to assimilate.  They divided up the reservation and gave allotments of land throughout the reservation to Native-Americans and non-Native-Americans and they would live side by side in a checker board affect.  As a result of this Act, families and tribes were broken up.  After each family received their allotment of land, the rest of the land was regarded as surplus and could be sold.  Native-Americans lost 88 million acres of land as a result of this Act.

It should be noted that many of these Acts were passed with good intentions.  The Europeans did not understand the Native-American culture and did not understand that Native-Americans did not want to change or assimilate.

Indian Citizenship Act, 1924.  This Act gave all Native-Americans their citizenship. However, if you lived on a reservation you could not vote.

Indian Reorganization Act, 1934.  It promoted Indian self-government.  The Native-Americans were allowed to buy back their land and made them eligible for jobs with the BIA, made federal loans available, and chartered business organizations.  There were a lot of positive results due to this Act.

Johnson-O’Malley Act, 1934.  This Act provided federal funds to be made available to contracting agencies for the purpose of Native-American education.  However, little supervision was provided on the use of the funds resulting in abuse.

Relocation Act, 1952.  This Act encouraged Native-Americans to move off of the reservations in to urban areas.  They were told they would be given transportation to the cities, given funds when they got to the cities, and given vocational training.  They would be taken to job sites after graduation.  Large numbers of Native-Americans applied for relocation.  Their applications were screened and they would indicate what areas they wanted to relocate to e.g., Denver, Chicago, Detroit, New York, California.  The government would contact the office of the particular location they wanted to relocate to and provided them a responsible sponsor.  Many Native-Americans were excited about the program, since they were curious abut the big cities, young men especially.  They entered big cities totally unprepared and experienced culture shock.  They were not prepared for the city and the city people were not prepared for them.  With the minimal skills they obtained they only qualified for jobs with the lowest wages.  Thus, they could only afford low income housing and lived in ghettos.  Many turned to alcohol or drug abuse, became mentally ill, and many returned to the reservations.

House Concurrent Resolution 108, 1953.  This was another attempt to help the Native-Americans to assimilate.  The reservations were to be terminated or dissolved and the Native-Americans would no longer fall under federal supervision.  They were to provide the Native-Americans money to get situated.  However, there was some confusion.  First of all the Native-Americans were not informed on what termination included.  The government thought that if they terminated the tribes they could save money, since they no longer had to provide services to the Native-Americans.  However, the government ended up spending millions of dollars on welfare, since the Native-Americans had little skills needed to earn a living in the cities.  During the period of 1954 to 1960, 61 tribes were terminated.  Since that time some of the tribes have been restored and termination has been ceased.  The termination program had a devastating affect on the Native-Americans.

Indian Education Act, 1972.  This Act ensured there were funds set aside solely for Native-American education.

Indian Self-Determination and Educational Assistance Act, 1975.  This Act stated that in schools where there were large numbers of Native-Americans, there would be Native-American instructors and Native-Americans on the Boards of Education.

Indian Child Welfare Act, 1978.  Until this time, children could be abruptly taken from their parents, by declaring their parents unfit.  This gave Native-Americans more control over what was happening to their children.

Part III. Contributions and issues

Contemporary social issues.  There are two major social problems confronting Native-Americans today.  They are alcoholism and suicide.  Dr. Kitano in his book Race Relations, states there are three responses to dominance.  The first response is aggression, the second is acceptance and the third is avoidance.  One form of avoidance is escaping through alcohol and suicide.

Social scientists state that after many years of abuse and being told you are inferior you will take on a negative self-identity.  One out of four Native-American males is an alcoholic.  One out of eight Native-American females is an alcoholic.  Alcoholism is a problem not only on reservations, but in the urban areas as well.  Along with alcoholism comes liver diseases.  Native-Americans suffer from cirrhosis of the liver three times more than non-Native-Americans.  Alcoholism has also led to increased arrests of Native-Americans due to inappropriate behavior while intoxicated.  Alcoholism is 10 times higher than all other races.  The majority of the youth start drinking in junior high school.  Other health concerns are high rates of tuberculosis, high blood pressure, and high infant mortality rate.

Approximately 9% of the Native-Americans complete college, 17% attend college, and 24% are high school dropouts.  The  suicide rate is about 1.6% times the national average, one out of six adolescents have tried to commit suicide.

Legal status of Native-Americans.  The Bureau of Indian Affairs, established in 1824 and headquartered in Washington D.C., has approximately 13,000 employees, of which, 75% are Native-American.  Trust Relationship is responsible for the following:

1. Overseeing over 300 reservations.

2. Leasing of mineral rights.

3. Developing of forest lands.

4. Developing and directing agricultural programs.

5. Protecting water and land rights.

Contributions.  Most of the early discoveries were made by Native-Americans.  The following are some of those contributions:

1. Food.   42% of food eaten over the world is derived from Native-Americans.

2. Modern Warfare.  Stress strategy and technique more than technology.

3. Naming of North America.  Over 2,000 English words were taken from Native-Americans languages.

4. Objects.  Provided parkas, moccasins and spears.

5. Philosophy.  Never give up, even against overwhelming odds.

6. Medicines.  Over 60 known medicines, such as aspirin, came from the Native-Americans.

Contemporary issues include:

1. Gambling and games.  Gross over 4 billion a year.

2. Land/Water Rights.

3. Land Claims.

4. Toxic/Solid Waste Dumps.

5. Tribes taken on waste industries.

6. Self-Determination.  Process of saying we are a tribe or getting recognition.

7. Mascots.  Seen as offensive.

8. Religious freedom. Use of peyote

9. Native-American Activism.

The key Native-American Organizations are:

1. American Indian Movement (AIM).

2. National Congress of American Indians (NCAI).

3. Native-American Rights Funds (NARF). Dedicated to protecting natural material resources.

4. National Indian Youth Council (NIYC).  Protects Native-Americans natural resources and religion.

5. Indian Youth of America (IYA).  Provide opportunity to experiences in educational and social activities.

Native-American participation in the armed forces.  Historically the Native-Americans have participated in all major conflicts.  The following are only some of their contributions to the defense of our nation:

1. 17,000 Native-Americans registered for the military in WWI, but only 8,000 actually got inducted.

2. At the beginning of WWII, there were 25,000 Native-Americans in the military.  Native-Americans won 71 Air Medals, 51 silver Stars, 47 Bronze Stars, 34 Distinguished Flying Crosses, and two Medals of Honor during WWII.

3. PFC Ira Hayes, a Pima Indian, was one of the men who raised the flag at Iwo Jima.

4. The Marines used Navajo troops in signal units to send code in their own language.  Theirs was the only code never deciphered by the enemy.

5. 41,500 Native-Americans served in Vietnam.

This document is continued

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